Economics IA Commentary Coversheet Essay Example for Free

Economics IA Commentary Coversheet Essay November 11 2009 The unemployment rate stands at 7.8% up 0.1% over the quarter and 2.0% on last year. Nearly 29 million people were in work in the period July to September according to the labour force survey (LFS). The number of people employed was up by 6,000 this quarter but down by 490,000 on the last year. The working age employment rate is 72.5% down 0.1% on the last quarter and down 1.9% on the last year. ILO-defined unemployment in July to September was 2.46 million (7.9%) up by 30,000 unemployed on April-June and 629,000 from this time last year. The claimant count for key out-of-work benefits was 1.6395 million in October up by 22,900 on last month, and up 632,700 on last year. Earnings growth over the year to August (including bonuses) was 1.6%, down 0.2% from the previous month. Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, Yvette Cooper said: The figures show more people in work and a lot more young people taking up our offer of full time education and training, which is welcome news. The fact that unemployment is significantly lower than everyone forecast at the beginning of the year shows the support for the economy is making a real difference. But we know things are still tough for a lot of families, and unemployment is expected to increase further next year. Thats why were determined to do more with an extra 35,000 youth jobs, more apprenticeships and education places so we can guarantee no young person gets stuck in long term unemployment. The figures out today also reinforce the fact that the UK labour market is performing better than most major economies. They show UK unemployment at 7.8%, compared to an EU average of 9.2% and lower than 14 other EU countries including France (10.0%), Ireland (13.0%) and Spain (19.3%), as well as the US (10.2%) and Canada (8.6%). Commenting on the latest statistics, John Philpott, Chief Economist and Director of Public Policy at the CIPD, said: UK unemployment is continuing to rise but at a much slower pace than earlier in the year. While this is not unexpected the fact that the unemployment total remained below 2.5 million in the quarter ending in September is encouraging. However, the relative improvement should not be interpreted as evidence that the labour market is returning to health, with male unemployment and long-term unemployment continuing to rise and youth unemployment now at a record rate despite a surge in the number of young people staying on in education to avoid the dole. Unemployment remained below 2.5 million in the three months to September primarily because there was a rise in part-time employment, temporary employment and contract working, the latter boosting self-employment. This more than offset a continued marked deterioration in full-time jobs for employees. Such a pattern is common in a labour market where overall demand for staff is weak and as the Bank of England reiterated today in its latest quarterly Inflation Report the economic outlook uncertain, with the road to recovery likely to be slow. At such times employers who need to recruit remain wary of hiring full-time staff and it is significant that today’s ONS figures do not show an improvement in the level of job vacancies. This pattern is also normally accompanied by a high rate of involuntary part-time working there are now almost 1 million people working part-time because they can’t find a full-time job. Women continue to be the main beneficiaries of a labour market where opportunities for part-time employment are increasing, while men lose out as full-time jobs are being lost. As a result the CIPD expects the rate of male unemployment to rise well above 10% in 2010, with the proportion of men in work set to fall to a record low. The current pattern of demand for labour is also doing nothing to ease the plight of young people. The latest quarter saw a further large fall in the number of under-25s in work, with the unemployment rate for 18-24 year olds now at a record high. There is little consolation in the fact that the number of unemployed young people remained below 1 million. This is explained by a quarterly surge in the number of young people classed as ‘economically inactive’, which the ONS figures indicate is mainly due to more young people staying on at school or college, almost certainly as an alternative to the dole. This article deals with unemployment in the UK. A person can be considered unemployed when he is involuntarily out of work, however is willing to work at current wage rates. One of the government’s main goals is to achieve full employment, where all people who are able and willing, are working. This is extremely beneficial for the economy because it can be considered working at maximum efficiency, which causes growth and development. A good way to illustrate a countries economy taking into account unemployment would be to use a PPF. The production possibility frontier is the orange line where the economy is working at full efficiency (full employment), using all of its resources. Point X is when the economy is not using all of its resources, and has people unemployed. http://i.investopedia.com/inv/dictionary/terms/ppf.gif Structural unemployment is a possible reason for the large decrease of workers. This specific type of unemployment focuses mainly on the loss of jobs under the condition that the demand for a certain product falls, or there is a shift of production abroad. In the category of disequilibrium unemployment, Demand deficient (Cyclical) Unemployment is most likely the number one cause for the UKs labour force being downsized. Due to the global recession, consumers can afford less goods and services, therefore the aggregate demand decreases significantly (hence the name – demand deficient). If the demand for production has substantially fallen, then naturally the demand for labour will also fall. Demand deficient unemployment can be illustrated using a diagram. Due to the fall in the D of goods and services, demand for labour shifts inwards from D1 to D2. With this, disequilibrium unemployment occurs with the number of workers shifting from Q1 to Q2. When demand for labour is strong, companies don’t hesitate to rise wages, although when demand for labour falls, and wages need to be cut, workers will resist wage cuts, therefore it is very hard for the company to cut wages for a large amount of workers without causing some kind disturbance or complications within the firm. If the company does chose to do this, the labour force will become angry and will want to retaliate somehow, perhaps going on strike. Due to a situation like this, parts of the company will not be producing/working, resulting in inefficiency. Aside from that, it will be very hectic, attracting negative attention from consumers and media, which is of course the company’s last need. In conclusion, the company will not be in control, when this is in fact their main priority, to sustain the stability and optimal working functionality. That is why the company prefers to downsize workers, and keep themselves running as best and as efficiently as possible. In order to deal with demand deficient unemployment the government should impose fiscalor monetary policies to raise aggregate demand and thus raise the demand for jobs. In the short run, when the AD shifts to the right (from AD1 to AD2) this causes and increase in real GDP (shift from Q1 to Q2 and P1 to P2). If AD would continue to grow in the short run, the country would reach a maximum supply. This constant struggle for the country to meet AD by increasing output would cause inflation instead of growth. However if the pressure is relatively small in the SR (short run) then it would be much easier to deal with AD in the LR. Supply side policies are government policies designed to increase output, and should also be imposed in order to cope with unemployment. Using a LRAS (long run aggregate supply) diagram is a good way to show the effects of supply side policies. If the Government were to impose supply side policies, the LRAS curve would shift right from LRAS1 – LRAS2. The price would then fall from P1 to P2 and the quantity (output + jobs) would increase from Q1 to Q2. Conclusivley the Government should investigate the best strategy to decrease unemployment. By imposing appropriate regulations and policies.

Over-spending and under-spending of the public sector budget

Over-spending and under-spending of the public sector budget The over-spending and under-spending of a budget is the positive or negative variance between what was actually spent and what was budgeted. Overspending Budgets overruns are the underestimation of costs and time or by the nonconformity of budget managers with the spending maximum defined in the budget, when projected. There are several explanations for overspending. Sometimes, it is simply bad forecasting on part of the budget manager. There was incomplete information or poor forecasting methods that led to an underestimation and/or unreal optimism of costs, expenses and revenues. Often there is change in scope of the project and costs associated with scope change are neither captured nor covered in the risk mitigation or contingency plan. Funds are allocated to the cost centers for spending, it is controlled. Overspent fund accumulate in arrears. Overruns could also be a result of off-budget spending which not considered part of the budget and is not included in budget totals. Off budget spending is often for political reasons. For example, after a request from President Reagan, Congress placed strategic petroleum reserve spending off-budget in 1982. Instead of using other means to control the deficit raising revenues or cutting spending placing this program off-budget gave the appearance of a smaller deficit, even though the government still needed to finance this spending. Source: Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the United States Government, Historical Tables and Mid-session Review, FY2006. Sometimes the expenditure processes are complicated and difficult. To circumvent this process exceptional procedures are development to speed to the process to release the funds. These exceptional procedures are tolerated by the treasury for politically sensitive expenditures. The procedures are frequently abused and should be discouraged. These procedures are used my officials to order supplies without making a formal request and much later the year un-forecasted invoices appear. Sometime fund are unavailable to make this invoices which leads to generation of arrears for the following year. The compounding of exceptional procedures also has long-term implications, incentivizing spending agencies to go outside the budget system to avoid control altogether. Such procedures are associated with or result in corruption. Often past experiences can lead to overspending. If a department head under spent the previous year and the budget for the following year was lost. The department is highly likely to spend the entire amount for the fear of losing funds for the next year. The way in which performance is reported can have a significant effect on the camaraderie and coordination between departments. If participation of the managers implementing the budget was absent, then managers can blame this for the file to abide by the budget. In addition impact of inflation and a sense of entitlement towards certain funds are also factors to be considered in budget planning. Overruns can be caused by such deficiencies in budget preparation. Under spending Many governments do not spend their full annual budget. The reasons for this under spending can be various and can result in many outcomes. Lack of timely spending or under spending can affect the citizens not receiving essential government services. Certain areas have more economic impacts such as jobs created through the timely initiation of new infrastructure project. Under spending can often obstruct resources from other departments/managers which/who are spending their budget more productively, preventing them to reach their complete potential of success in delivery of the intended service. Under spending in particular year frequently leads to rollovers and modifications in the subsequent years. These modifications are irregular and are cumbersome to be forecasted leaving the department ill-equipped to spend these rollovers. Factors that result in under spending include insufficiencies in budget preparation and project/program planning, unrealistic projections of revenues, poor governance and off-budget spending. Virement is another factor that fuels under spending: It is the transfer of funds from one budget head to another. To achieve efficiency or prevent the need for a supplementary estimate as an under spending from one head may be transferred to another head which has overspending. One problem with unrestricted virement is that managers would inevitably spend al their budget allocation for fear of a budget reduction in the subsequent year. Example: Within the ministry of education budgets are transferred from primary education to higher education it can result in the delay of programs starting in the K-12 grades. Example: The latest un-audited expenditure reports from the National Treasury indicate that R3.48 billion of the national government budget went unspent in 2000/01 financial year- about R1.7billion on both the recurrent and the capital side of the budget. The under spend in provincial government was far greater at R5.5 billion. The latest available data indicate that this picture has not changed significantly in 2001/02. Although the government is moving in the right direction, most initiatives to address under spending appear rather general and details have yet to emerge on how the Treasury will specifically tackle the problem. In the meantime, under-spending seems set to remain with us. Source: Government under spending remains a problem February 2002 By Marritt Claassens and Paul Whelan, Budget Information Service, Idasa, http://www.idasa.org.za/bis/ Different kinds of variances A variance is the difference between a budgeted, planned or standard amount and the actual amount. Variances can be divided according to their nature of the underlying amounts and is determined by the needs of users of the variance information. These include : Variable cost variances Direct material variance Price variance: is the difference between the standard cost and the actual cost for the actual quantity of material used or purchased. Usage Variance: is the difference between the standard quantity of materials that should have been used for the number of units actually produced, and the actual quantity of materials used, valued at the standard cost per unit of material. Direct labour variance Rate Variance is the difference between the standard cost and the actual cost paid for the actual number of hours. Efficiency variance is the difference between the standard labour hour that should have been worked for the actual number of units produced and the actual number of hours worked when the labour hours are valued at the standard rate. Overhead variances Fixed overhead variances: identifies what proportion of the total fixed overhead variance is due to actual fixed overhead being different from the budgeted fixed overhead. Variable overhead variance measures the change between actual expenditure and the allowed overhead for actual labour hours. Income variance is the difference between actual income and budget income. It is used to measure the performance of a income function, and/or analyze business results to better understand market conditions. Actual income can differ from budgeted income either due to the variance in volume sold or the variance in the price point of the budgeted price point. Best Practices The following are some key good practice for prevention and minimization of the variances: Broad goals should be established to guide government decision making. Budgeting methods are developed to achieve these goals. An appropriate budget is developed to achieve the goals and the performance criterion is determined at the beginning. Close interaction between the financial information system and the budgeting systems is essential. There should be a control on collective spending and any deficit, a overarching prioritization of strategies with regards to expenditures and better use of the budgeted resources. The approved budget should be entered into the financial information system. In addition to a full commitment system, memorandum notes should be included the system that capture records of commitment but does not amend the financial records. Timely comparative financial statements on a regular basis. These statements should include original and revised budget, capture variances and explain major variances. The audited and reliable statements are based in solid accounting standards with regular external reporting. Budget Monitoring: Monitoring and controlling consists of those processes are performed to observe that potential problems can be identified in a timely manner and corrective action can be taken, when necessary. The key benefit is that the actuals are observed and measured regularly to identify variances from the budget. During the course of the year, instance may arise where the income or expenditure is very large that may require and supplementary estimate. The better the level of control and intelligence available the earlier this situations can be detected and more swiftly and appropriate an action can be taken to minimize the variance. However if is determined there has to be a change then the financial information systems can be updated as soon as possible. If a department become aware that it will overspend at any time during the year it must notify the Treasury department immediately. It is possible that a supplement estimate is provided if deemed appropriate. Transparency is key publish the State accounting policies, establish system of internal controls, and keep doors open for public and parliamentary scrutiny. Flexible budgeting is a performance evaluation tool. It is not be prepared before the end of the fiscal period. A flexible budget adjusts the initial budget for the actual level of output. The flexible budget answers the question: If the department had known at the beginning of the period what would the output volume (units delivered or sold) would be, what the budget would have looked like? If the department actually delivered X units, then treasury should compare actual delivery costs for X units to what it should have spent to make X units, not to what the department should have spent to deliver X-1000 units or X+1000 units etc. The flexible budget provides a better opportunity for planning and controlling than does a static (initial) budget.

Approaches And Methods Of Training Management Essay

Approaches And Methods Of Training Management Essay Training is a systematic process to develop knowledge, skill and attitude from learning experience to achieve maximum performance in an activity (Buckley and Caple 2007). Learning and education both are different but important for organisations. Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes by experience, reflection, study and instruction. While education is a series of activities which enables to develop knowledge, skills, values and understanding that allow a broad range of problem solving and analysis (Buckley and Caple, 2007). Training plays an effective role in different kinds of learning and development. The rapid change in global environment pressurized all organisations to enhance their focus on customers. That time of producing, conceiving and marketing products dropped as organisations adopted new ways to compete in the market (Capelli et al, 1997 cited in Rod and Collin, 2000). The successful organisations should have highly skilled and committed employees who can survive in this era of competition. Workers learn to enhance their performance and want to be more competent in their roles. Work place learning is very important after education to develop a long career (Legge, 2005). Organisations can get competitive advantage upon rivals through hiring skilled staff and through better training programs. According to Brookes (1995) organisations have to support training department and the least step is to appoint a dedicated staff in personnel for this task. It is important to make a training policy for the company and allocate specific budget for training. This all points to the fact that training and development is a prime business activity which has serious objectives and requires serious management (Nilson, 2003). There are a number of benefits for individuals as a consequence of training procedures; relative to the present positions, individuals may see job satisfaction increase as a result of undergoing training (Clements and Jones, 2002). Intrinsic satisfaction may result from being able to perform a task to a higher standard, where as extrinsic satisfaction may come as a result of increased job skills, which may lead to greater earnings, career prospects and promotion possibilities (Buckley and Caple, 2007). An obvious benefit to individuals is the change from their regular work pattern, which can have recreational benefits as well, for example, less boredom and greater variety during work (Buckley and Caple, 2007). Some of the benefits of training, from an organisations perspective included higher employee performance, productivity and possibly acting as a source of competitive advantage. There a number of other potential benefits to organisations of successful training procedures; decrease in wastage and increased productivity; lower labour turnover, saving costs (Rae, 2000); higher customer satisfaction, possibly leading to greater sales; shorter learning cycles for employees, reducing expenditure (Washington, 1995); lower absenteeism and fewer accidents (Buckley and Caple, 2007). The innovations in technology brought speedy change in business environment. Training plays a critical role for individuals at work to manage careers development and organisational change. Training and learning is a pivotal business function that maximise profit and the companys long term health (Nilson, 2003, P.2). The implementation of training plan depends on a lot of factors including the proper identification of training need and individuals recognition for training need (Reid et al, 2004). Proper learning and best utilization of resources equally effect on effective outcomes (Bramley, 1986). 2.1 Approaches to Training There are a number of approaches to train employees; the systematic approach is widely adopted in the organisations. However, the reactive and proactive approaches to training are still in use by some organisations. 2.1.1 Reactive Approach The reactive approach to training tends to be an approach adopted predominantly by less developed and/or smaller organisations; this does not tend to involve pre-planning, but can be seen as spontaneous to a certain degree (Legge, 2005). This approach to training turn into action when business performance and productivity falls or seems to drop beyond a suitable level; the organisation then attempts to configure training to counteract this downturn. In comparison, to the other approaches to training, the financial layout is therefore relatively small, since training expenditure is effectively being used when it is needed (Lundy and Cowling, 1996). This approach suits smaller organisations whose finances cannot afford comprehensive training programmes which are systematically planned and administered (Lundy and Cowling, 1996). 2.1.2 Proactive Approach The proactive approach to training is effective where Organisations are actively seeking ways for training to improve their business performance; when Organisations are looking not only to improve their current training methods, but also opportunities to extend training to wider segments of their organisation. Such an approach tends to be adopted by organisations that see training as important part of their business model and essential to gaining a competitive advantage (Schuler and Jackson, 2007). 2.1.3 Systematic Approach The Systematic Approach to training is by far the approach which has been given the most attention to in literature and research (Raffe, 2004- Bratton and Gold, 2003). It is also the theoretical approach which most organisations adopt thus it is often argued it is the most logical and most successfully effective in a practical sense (Raffe, 2004). The systematic approach to training effectively revolves around dividing the training process and procedures into stages and sub-stages. McNamara (2008) identifies the stages of basic systematic approach to training which are analysis, design, develop, implement and evaluate. Analysis: This stage involves the organisations needs and identification of training goals, and the strategies to equip trainees with knowledge and skills to meet the organisations objectives. Usually this stage also includes the identification of training timings and participants. Design: This stage involves making training procedures and systems that can allow objectives to be met and a system that learners and trainers can implement to meet the learning goals. This stage involves identifying learning objectives, required facilities, funding, etc. Thus planning skills are utilised heavily here in this stage (McNamara, 2008). Develop: This stage involves obtaining the necessary resources which will be required to put together the training package designed (McNamara 2008); for example, identifying premises, materials and resources which will be required and progressing to obtain and organise them. Implement: Implementation stage tends to involve putting the training package designed into practice. It includes a variety of tasks ranging from delivering the training, clarifying training materials, administrative processes and conducting a final evaluation. This phase can include administrative activities, such as copying, scheduling facilities etc. Evaluate: This stage involves assessing training prior to, during and after its duration. It can also involve a wide variety of tasks from testing attendees on what was taught during the training, to asking their opinions on the training (McNamara, 2008). 2.2 Methods of Training The training delivery methods can be divided into cognitive and behavioural approaches. Cognitive methods provide information orally or in written form, demonstrate relationships among concepts, or provide the rules for how to do something. They stimulate learning through their impact on cognitive processes and are associated most closely with changes in knowledge and attitudes. The lecture, discussion, e-learning and case studies are cognitive methods. The cognitive methods of training can influence skill development (referenceforbusiness.com). The behavioural methods allow the trainee to practice behaviour in a real or simulated fashion. They stimulate learning through experience and are best at skill development and attitude change. The equipment simulators, business games, role plays, the in-basket technique, behaviour modelling and, to some extent, case studies are behavioural methods. Both behavioural and cognitive methods can be used to change attitudes. On-the-job training is a combination of many methods and is effective at developing knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Source: www.referenceforbusiness.com 2.3 Types of training Training broadly categorized into two types i.e. pre-service training and in-service training. Pre-service training is more academic in nature and is offered by formal institutions following syllabuses for certain period to offer a formal degree or diploma. In-service training, on the other hand, is offered by the organisation from time to time for the development of employees skills and knowledge. 2.3.1 Pre-service Training Pre-service training is a process through which individuals are made ready to enter a certain kind of professional job. They have to attend regular classes in a formal institution and need to complete a definite curriculum and courses successfully to receive a formal degree or diploma. They are not entitled to get a professional job unless they receive a certificate, diploma, or degree from the appropriate institution. 2.3.2 In-service Training In-service training is a process of staff development for the purpose of improving the performance of an incumbent holding a position with assigned job responsibilities. It promotes the professional growth of individuals. It is a program designed to strengthen the competencies of extension workers while they are on the job (Malone, 1984). In-service training is a problem-centred, learner-oriented, and time-bound series of activities which provide the opportunity to develop a sense of purpose and increase capacity to gain knowledge and mastery of techniques. In-service training may be categorized into five different types: induction or orientation training, foundation training, on-the-job training, refresher or maintenance training, and career development training. Induction or Orientation Training: Induction training is given immediately after employment to introduce the new staff members with their positions. It begins on the first day the new employee is on the job (Rogers Olmsted, 1957). Induction training for all employees should develop an attitude of personal dedication to the service of people and the organisation. This kind of training supplements whatever pre-service training the new personnel might have had (Halim and Ali, 1988) concerning the characteristics of a new employee. According to Van Dersal (1962) when people start to work in an organisation, they are eager to know what sort of outfit they are getting into, what they are supposed to do, and whom they will work with. They are likely to be more attentive and open-minded than experienced employees. In fact, the most favourable time for gaining employees attention and for moulding good habits among them is when they are new to the job. Foundation Training: Foundation training is in-service training which is also appropriate for newly recruited employees. Besides technical competence and routine instruction about the organisation, every staff member needs some professional knowledge about various rules and regulations of the government, financial transactions, administrative capability, communication skills, leadership ability, coordination and cooperation among different institutions, report writing etc. Foundation training is made available to employees to strengthen the foundation of their service career. This training is usually provided at an early stage of service life. Maintenance or Refresher Training: Refresher training is offered to update and maintain the specialized subject-matter knowledge of the employees. Refresher training keeps the specialists, administrators, subject-matter officers, extension supervisors, and frontline workers updated and enables them to add to the knowledge and skills they already have. Maintenance or refresher training usually deals with new information and new methods, as well as review of older ones. This type of training is needed both to keep employees at the peak of their possible production and to prevent them from getting into a rut (Van Dersal, 1962). On-the-Job Training: The On-the Job training is ad hoc or regularly scheduled training, such as fortnightly training under the training and visit system .It is provided by the superior officer or the subject specialists to the field staff. This training is generally problem or technology oriented and includes formal presentations, informal discussion, and opportunities to try out new skills and knowledge in the specific field. The administrator or subject specialist of each department must play a role in providing on-the-job training to the staff while conducting day-to-day normal activities. Career or Development Training: This type of in-service training is designed to upgrade the knowledge, skills, and ability of employees to help them to perform greater responsibilities at higher positions. The career development training is arranged departmentally for successful employees at all levels, for their continuing education and professional development. According to Malone (1984) the extension services that provide the opportunity for all staff to prepare a plan for career training will receive the benefits of having longer tenured and more satisfied employees, which increase both the effectiveness and efficiency of an extension service. Malone (1984) also stated that career development is the act of acquiring information and resources that enables one to plan a program of lifelong learning related to his or her work life. The career or development training plays a key role when a junior staff member is promoted at a higher level. 2.4 Effectiveness of Training It can be difficult to assess how effectively an organisations training processes are (Price, 2007); people often see this will be represented by organisation profitability and its efficiency (Lundy and Cowling, 1996); however, such increases are difficult, since they can attributed to a variety of factors including increases in product demand, economic/political factors and demographic changes. Despite this, it is important that firms measure training effectiveness for a number of reasons. The most recognisable and frequently used model for measuring the effectiveness of training programs was developed by Donald Kirkpatrick in 1950(Bratton and Gold 2003; Kirkpatrick, 1959; Price, 2007). It has been adapted and changed by different academics, although the basic structure has well stood the test of time (Kirkpatrick, 1998). The basic structure of Kirkpatricks four-level model is illustrated below. Source: (ftknowledge.com) Fig 2: Kirkpatrick Model for Evaluating Effectiveness of Training Programs Evaluating each level of the model can highlight the strengths and weaknesses of any particular training program or procedure; despite the progressive level composition of the model, Kirkpatrick (1998) indicates that it is still possible for a training program to be effective at the higher levels while being ineffective at the lower levels; e.g. organisational performance (level 4) may be improving as a result of the training yet employees may not have an optimal attitude or reaction to it (level 1). This view is supported by previous studies (Stokking, 1996). It is necessary to explain and discuss each component of the model in detail. 2.4.1 Reaction Reaction evaluates how employees felt about the training (Kirkpatrick, 1998). It is necessary for training programme to be effective, that employees have a positive reaction to training. This may be in the form of enjoying or finding training interesting. If employees do not react or have positive attitudes towards the training, it is likely to affect its efficiency (Armstrong, 2006). It is important to evaluate how employees feel about training whether they like or dislike it and what they feel can be add to improve their reactions. Further aspects of this component which may need to investigated, involve assessing whether delegates felt the training was an effective use of their time, whether they felt the training was relevant and were they comfortable with and its different aspects (Kirkpatrick, 1998). This is sometimes done through feedback sheets, where the delegates are given the opportunity to convey their views (Kirkpatrick, 1998). 2.4.2 Learning The learning is the evaluation of the increase in knowledge prior to and after the training procedure (Kirkpatrick, 1959). The effectiveness of this component is dependent on whether employees learned what they were intended to be taught and to what degree did their knowledge increased. This can be measured through assessments prior to and after a training session taken place, although again a questionnaire can also be given to attendants monitoring whether they personally feel their knowledge has increased (Brookes, 1995). 2.4.3 Behavioural Change The behavioural change is the extent of applied learning when back on the job (Kirkpatrick, 1998), the implementation of any learning which may have taken place. This is necessary for the organisation to realize the practical benefit of the training undertaken by their employees. Measuring strongly revolves around questioning employees on whether they felt different and more prepared for their job, as a result of their training (Mckenna and Beech, 2002). Furthermore, delegates should also be questioned on the fact whether the change when working is noticeable and whether they have been utilizing the relevant skills learned, as a result of the training undertaken (Lundy and Cowling, 1996). 2.4.4 Organisational Performance The organisational Performance is the effect on the business environment, made by their trainee upon completion of their training (Kirkpatrick, 1998). It is typical measure in terms of key performance indicators such as volumes, values and percentages and other quantifiable aspects such as turnover, attrition, quality and profits. The measuring of organisational performance resulting directly from training can be a tedious and complex process. Kirkpatrick (1998) says this cannot be measured accurately without substantial investigation since external factors, away from the training, will have a huge impact on the aspects discussed. Investigating this is limited to questioning senior managerial personnel on the organisations performance in terms such aspects and how much of the improvements/falls can be given to the actual training (Lundy and Cowling, 1996). The weakness with this approach lies in the reliance on honesty of the managerial personnel questioned, as well as their judgment . The ideal would be to involve the wide variety of relevant quantitative figures (Kirkpatrick, 1998). 2.5 Criticism on Kirkpatrick Model Kirkpatricks model for evaluation of training is well-established and in widespread use. Many organisations find it useful and since its publication no better alternative has been suggested. It is however, some criticisms relating to the model itself and the assumptions upon which it is applied. There are some criticisms of Kirkpatricks model for evaluating effectiveness of training that have implications for the ability of training evaluation to deliver benefits in the interests of organisations. These include the incompleteness of the model, the assumption of causality, and the assumption of increasing importance of information. The model is incomplete: The Kirkpatricks model for evaluating effectiveness of training gives an oversimplified view of training effectiveness that does not consider individual or contextual influences in the evaluation of training. A broad stream of research over past two decades (Ford Kraiger, 1995; Salas Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Tannenbaum Yukl, 1992) has documented the presence of a wide range of organisational, individual, and training design and delivery factors that can influence training effectiveness before, during, or after training. This research has led to a new understanding of training effectiveness that considers characteristics of the organisation and work environment and characteristics of the individual trainee as crucial input factors (Cannon-Bowers, Salas, Tannenbaum, 1995). The contextual factors such as the learning culture of the organisation (Tracy, Tannenbaum, Kavanaugh, 1995), organisational or work unit goals and values (Ford, Quinones, Sego, Sorra, 1992), the nature of interpersonal support in the workplace for skill acquisition and behaviour change (Bates, Holton, Seyler, Carvalho,2000) the climate for learning transfer (Rouiller Goldstein,1993), and the adequacy of material resources have been shown to influence the effectiveness of training process. The Kirkpatricks model assumes that examination of these factors is not essential for effective evaluation of training. The assumption of causal linkages: Kirkpatricks model for evaluating effectiveness of training assumes that the levels of criteria represent a causal chain such that positive reactions lead to greater learning, which produces greater transfer and subsequently more positive results. Although Kirkpatrick is vague about the precise nature of the causal linkages between training outcomes, his writings do imply that a simple causal relationship exists between the levels of evaluation (Holton, 1996). In one of Kirkpatricks more recent publications he stated that if training is going to be effective, it is important that trainees react favourably and that without learning, no change in behaviour will occur (Kirkpatrick, 1994), research, however, largely failed to confirm such causal linkages. Incremental importance of information: Kirkpatricks model for evaluating effectiveness of training assumes that each level of evaluation provides data that is more informative than the last (Alliger Janak, 1989). This assumption has produced the perception among training evaluators that establishing level four results will provide the most useful information about training process effectiveness. Although there are some criticisms upon Kirkpatrick model for evaluating training effectiveness but this model is well suited in addressing the objectives of this research, which significantly focus on assessing if training problems exist, as well as training effectiveness and identifying potential improvements within bank. 2.6 Problems of Training Evaluation There are many problems which exist and can occur that can hinder the training process; these can vary strongly dependent on factors such as organisation type, training type, etc (Schuler and Jackson, 2007). To point out some of the common problems of the training process, the researcher has opted to use the components of Kirkpatricks model. Reaction: The common problem is that training may be boring, uninteresting and negatively seen by the employees; a positive reaction perception of training in the view of employees is important to the effectiveness of training. As with development aspects in general it is usually necessary for people to enjoy them or at the very least not dislike them, to be impressionable (Noe, 1998). Learning: The learning styles of employees can strongly affect the how much they can learn during training sessions. Honey and Mumford (1989) identify four styles of learning which outline ways to which an individual may be favoured to learning; these are activists, reflectors, theorists and pragmatists. Behavioural Change: Behavioural Change can be affected in numerous ways; this is the aspect which determines the extent to which the practical benefit of training is realized. The common problem which can prevent behavioural change being realized is that of a lack of relevance (Kirkpatrick, 1959). If the training undertaken by employees is not relevant to the skills required in their job then they are unlikely to change to a more effective way of working. The other main problems of effective behavioural change lie in the ability of the individuals to transfer any new skills they have learnt during training (Gibb, 2007). Organisational Performance: Training however successful at variety of levels may not necessarily translate into improved organisational performance; the variety of external factors affecting an organisations performance as well as individuals performance, can mean that even if the training is perfectly designed it may not lead to greater performance on a business level (Rod and Colin, 2000). There is fact that many training programs are focused on informing trainees as opposed to directly intending to improve their job performance (Gibb, 2007). 3.0 Research Methodology To obtain maximum output researcher has to devise an appropriate research strategy which will be beneficial for accurate results while analysing the data. Author elaborates the research methods and approaches which will be used in this investigation. An effective research can only conducted by using relevant strategies out of many and each of them can be used for exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research (Saunders, 2007). According to Deetz (1996) different modes of research allow us to understand different phenomena and for different reasons. The methodology chosen depends on what researcher is trying to do rather than a commitment to a particular paradigm (Cavaye, 1996). The methodology used must match the particular objectives of research. Different phenomena may require the use of different or a set of methodologies. By focusing on the phenomenon under examination, rather than the methodology, researchers can select appropriate methodologies for their enquiries (Falconer Mackay, 1999). 3.1 Research Paradigms The term paradigm is introduced by the Thomas Kuhn, he characterizes a paradigm as: An integrated cluster of substantive concepts, variables and problems attached with corresponding methodological approaches and tools (Kuhn, 1962).In the past century, different paradigms have introduced due to the remarkable growth in the research. There are two main paradigms to verify the theoretical propositions, i.e. positivism and anti-positivism. Positivism comprises on usage of natural science approach. Researcher prefers to work along with an observable social reality which results in making law similar to natural scientists (Remenyi et al, 1998,). This is useful for quantitative research with logics. An important factor of positivism approach is that research can go as far as possible and in a value free manner (Saunders, 2007). Although positivistic paradigm continued to influence educational research for a long time in the latter half of the twentieth century, it was criticized due to its lack of regard for the subjective states of individuals. It regards human behaviour as passive, controlled and determined by external environment. Hence human beings are dehumanized without their intention, individualism and freedom taken into account in viewing and interpreting social reality. According to the critics of this paradigm, objectivity needs to be replaced by subjectivity in the process of scientific inquiry. This gave rise to anti-positivism or naturalistic inquiry. Anti-positivism emphasizes that social reality is viewed and interpreted by the individual according to the ideological positions they posses. The anti-positivists believe that reality is multi-layered and complex (Cohen et al, 2000) and a single phenomenon are having multiple interpretations. Positivism emphasizes objectivist approach to studying social phenomena and gives importance to research methods focusing on quantitative analysis, surveys, experiments etc. Similarly, anti-positivism stresses on subjectivist approach to studying social phenomena attaches importance to a range of research techniques focusing on qualitative analysis like personal interviews, participant observations, account of individuals, personal constructs etc. Other research paradigms further exist in the form of Interpretivism and Realism. Interpretivism is based on beliefs of people and interprets the meaning which they perceive. This emphasises creating research among people than objects. The interpretivist approach is significant if research is conducted in the fields of marketing, organisational behaviour and human resource management (Saunders, 2007). Realism comprises on the fact that reality is independent of the mind. It is totally based on reality rather than idealism. The underlying assumption of realism is that senses show us reality and that is truth. In other words, objects have their existence and thats the reality (Saunders, 2007). Both qualitative and quantitative approaches are utilized when adopting a realism stance (Maylor and Blackmon, 2005). The researcher sees combination of both Interpretivist and Realism stances the most appropriate way to approach this study. The interpretive stance is essential to establish the effectiveness of training activities within the bank while the realism philosophy is important to allowing the other research objectives to be met. According to Easterby Smith it is rare for research to be conducted from a single philosophical perspective, a combination of stances is mostly needed to allow research objectives to be met (Easterby Smith et al, 2002). 3.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Both qualitative and quantitative methods are to be used in this research, thus it is important that both of these to be discussed. Qualitative Methods: Qualitative research methods look more at human perceptions of issues. They tend to offer an insight and deeper, broader understanding of matters, rather than more clinical, concise quantitative approach (Collis and Hussey, 2003).Such methods uncover meanings and the variety of human response. Because they view issues with a social context methods tends to be unstructured and possesses an element of authenticity (Jankowicz, 2005). The qualitative methods which researcher intends to use primarily are semi-structured interviews. Quantitative Methods: Quantitative methods look at facts and figures that can be measured in some way to achieve a quantified, or generalized in terms of their relationship with each other (Collis and Hussey, 2003).The techniques in this type of research include experiments (in which a hypothesis may be tested out under controlled conditions), surveys and questionnaires. The questions are closed ended and structured interviews. 3.3 Primary Research Primary data is collected data, which has specifically being done to answer questions passed by the current research objectives. There are many means of obtaining primary data such as observation, surveys, interviews and questionnaire. The researcher intends to use questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and observation for primary data collection in this research. One of the main advantages of primary data is the availability of up to date data so the credibility of the data usually cannot be questioned (Collis and Hussey, 2003) while the major disadvantages of primary data collection is that it can be a difficult process, especially in terms of time consumption as finding participant, setting up the actual research process and then analyzing the results usually takes up a lot of time (Collis and Hussey, 2003

The Classification And Formation Of Crystals :: essays research papers

The Classification and Formation of Crystals Introduction Purpose   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My purpose of this experiment is to find out how crystals are formed and how they are classified. For a long time, I’ve been interested in crystals, so I’ ve decided this experiment would be perfect for me! Crystallography   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The study of the growth, shape, and geometric characteristics of crystals is called crystallography. When the conditions are right, each chemical element and compound can crystallize in a definite and characteristic form.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thirty-two classes of crystals are theoretically possible, almost all common minerals fall into one of about twelve classes, and some classes have never been seen. The thirty-two classes are grouped into six crystal systems, based on the length and position of the crystal axes. Crystal axes are imaginary lines passing through the center of the crystals. Minerals in each system share certain proportions and crystal form and many important optical properties.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The six crystal systems are very important to a mineralogists and geologists; specification of the system is necessary in the description of each crystal system. Isometric   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This system comprises crystals with three axes, all perpendicular to one another and all have equal length. Tetragonal   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This system comprises crystals with three axes, all perpendicular to one another; but only two are equal in length. Orthorhombic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This system comprises crystals with three mutually perpendicular axes, all of different lengths. Monoclinic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This system comprises crystals with three axes, all unequal in length, two o which are not perpendicular to another, but both of which are perpendicular to the third. Triclinic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This system comprises crystals with three axes, all unequal in length and is not perpendicular to one another. Hexagonal   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This system comprises crystals with four axes. Three of these axes are in a single plane, proportionally spaced, and of equal length. The fourth axis is perpendicular to the other three. Some crystallographers split the hexagonal in two, calling the seventh system trigonal or rhombohedral. Formation of Crystals   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Crystals are formed when a liquid becomes solid or when a vapor or liquid solution becomes supersaturated. Some substances tends to form seed

Comparing Social Classes in Toni Morrisons Recitatif and Guy de Maupas

Comparing Social Classes in Toni Morrison's Recitatif and Guy de Maupassant's The Necklace  Ã‚   Toni Morrison's "Recitatif" and Guy de Maupassant's "The Necklace" portray social classes according to the influence of the narrator. Therefore, the overview of the presented classes is biased. Although "Recitatif" and "The Necklace" provide images of several different classes, the class level of the narrator conveys generalizations about each of the respective class levels relative to the story. While the society level of the narrator of "The Necklace" is fairly obvious through careful reading, the social status of Twyla, the narrator of "Recitatif" is directly stated. Twyla's husband, Josh, is a firefighter. Therefore, he is a member of the working, middle class society. Their extended household lives in an average neighborhood and the family members lead common lives. Although the main character of "The Necklace" is also a member of the middle class, the narrator belongs to a wealthier society. This is evident through the narrator's description of Mathilde. For example, the very first sentence of "The Necklace," "She was one of those pretty and charming girls who are sometimes, as if by a mistake of destiny, born in a family of clerks" (67), indicates that Mme. Loisel is shallow and self-centered. Although the narrators of "Recitatif" and "The Necklace" are from different classes, each employs similar methods to create sympathy for their respective society and malevolence toward the class of the story's antagonist. Although Twyla and Roberta both display several character flaws in "Recitatif," Roberta is the ultimate wrongdoer. Twyla and Roberta begin having problems with their friendship followin... ... of fiction. Though frequently overlooked, this factor often affects a story's plot with as much of an impact, if not more, as the setting and point of view. Generalizations regarding the different levels of society are subtly intertwined with other important facts. The society of a short story's narrator, whether the narrator is an active character or outside the story, is an influential factor concerning the presentation of the different classes in the story, therefore directly affecting the plot. Works Cited de Maupassant, Guy. "The Necklace." Understanding Fiction. 3rd ed. Eds. Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979. 67-74 Morrison, Toni. "Recitatif." New Worlds of Literature: Writings from America's Many Cultures. 2nd ed. Eds. Jerome Beaty and J. Paul Hunter. New York: Norton, 1994. 210-225   

Analyzing Race and Its Influence in your Community

Racial influences rely on a number of factors depending on a place’s history and location. It may include racism according to color, racism according to social status, and racism based on religion and ethnicity. But regardless of its foundation, racism indeed has interesting effects on people and the society at large.Racial differences in our community are not in terms of color, but of religion and ethnicity. Actually, it is between Muslims and Christians. Anywhere in the world today, the root cause of conflicts can be attributed to religious and ethnic diversities.The unsolved barrier amongst Muslims and Christians has always resulted to misunderstandings, discrimination and worse, wars which end up to loss of lives and more prejudice and hatred. Personally, I believe racism only puts the clashing parties at losing ends.Culture and traditions between Muslims and Christians are different. It can be said that Muslims are more conservative and secluded compared to Christians who are more or less Westernized. From clothing to behavior and practices, both beliefs have little similarities.In the community where I lived in, Christians often criticized the Muslim way of life. Basic is their manner of clothing. Muslim women are sanctioned to wear veils and not a single strand of hair should be exposed in public. The head should be totally covered. No skin should be seen so women always wear long-sleeves and long pants and skirts to cover their arms and legs respectively.Talking or hanging out with men is prohibited as well. Islamic laws require that women should remain traditional and well-kept in order to be respected and clean in the eyes of Allah, the Muslim term for God. Some Christians often make rude and impolite remarks in front of Muslim women and stared at them head to foot which is a sign of disrespect and indifference.Apathetically, some Christians cannot really hide their emotions in that they want their strong message to be really imparted in a crue l manner. They utter comments such as â€Å"Muslims are born traitors† which is for me, a nasty thing to say. It is making the gap farther and harder to patch up.Drinking alcohol is a taboo for Islamic submitters. They should abide by the five pillars of Islam including pronouncement of faith in Allah (shahadah), praying five times a day (salat), fasting during the Holy Month of Ramadhan (saum), giving alms to the poor (zakat), and pilgrimage to Mecca if possible (hajj). Some Christians also laughed at the manner Muslims pray. During Ramadhan, some non-Muslims express negative interpretations by questioning the significance of not eating and not drinking anything the whole day.On the contrary, Christians are more carefree and liberated though there are some conservative families as well. But more often than not, they can do anything under the sun. Discipline and control are still instilled upon them but their behavior is often unlimited.Muslims also criticized Christians for being too modern especially in the way they dress. Some women wear very suggestive clothing, showing a lot of skin. These women are often disrespected and insulted by Muslim men and even Christian men for being too showy and vulgar. But Christians do not mind these comments thinking that they are up-to-date relative to the popular trends as seen on television and in the Internet.Most young Christian women nowadays are free to hang out anywhere; some even drink and smoke in public. If public display of affection to a boyfriend or girlfriend is illegal for Muslims, Christians often welcome it. Muslims usually practice arranged marriage and exclusiveness in marriage between Muslims alone while most Christians can choose whoever they want to be their lifetime partner regardless of religion and culture.As long as the couple loves each other, they can marry without obstacles from the woman’s family. This is very prevalent in the community where I live in.Muslim women who occasional ly end up with Christian men are often disowned and as a result, the family of the Muslim woman takes revenge not only to the Christian guy but to his entire clan as well. Some cases unfortunately end up in killings or total disowning of the Muslim woman by her kin and family including relatives and other blood relations.

Hold the Future in Your Hand

â€Å"Hold the Future in your Hand† In 1962, Sony put an ad out to introduce one of the first micro televisions (TV). This tiny box was a milestone in television viewing at that point in time. Who could believe that in is era that Sony would create a television that could actually be held in the palm of the hand? At only 8lbs. it is not much larger than your telephone. Think of it, it’s the early 60’s and a typical household only had one television, then suddenly an advertisement comes out describing a television that can be held in your hand.Imagine it, a rechargeable TV, one that could be used by normal battery, auto battery or by plugging it into the wall. Now all of a sudden this was not only a small TV to fit in a person’s hand, but one that could be brought anywhere. No longer was a family tied to watching TV just at home, now television was able to be watched anywhere. The 1962 ad â€Å"Hold the Future in your Hands, by Sony† is an effective advertisement that in it’s time was cutting edge technology; Sony shows appeal to men and women, versatility as well ad keeping up with a demanding future.To begin with, Sony’s attempt in bringing portable televisions to the horizon was very effective in the way they advertised. They created a television that was not only designed to appeal to both sexes but to show their leap in technology as well. Sony did not just put out a hand held television they also made one that you could use without having to watch television in the home, but rather one that you could watch on the road or outside.Secondly, over the past 66 years, Sony has continually shown us that they are always on the cutting edge of something big. Even back in the 1960’s when they were well ahead of their competitors; Sony produced a product that was not only new and inventive but versatile as well. Sony jumped ahead in the competition by creating a television that was not only useful at home but on the go as well. At that point in time they were the first on the market to design a television with portability.When Sony created this ad showing a woman holding the television in her hand Sony created an appeal to both sexes with this Micro TV, which made it an easier sell. In the 1960’s men were the primary television watchers when they got home from work, but by Sony using the type of ad they did they were able to appeal to the women. Although, this is not as characteristic today as it was in 1960, back then more woman were stay at home wives and mothers and their job was to ensure that dinner and housework was completed.Having this Micro TV that did not have to be plugged in was a blessing for women to be able to watch television wherever they were in the home. Finally, over the years Sony has continually surprised me with their ability to create electronics that make our life easier, as well as give us items to make our life more enjoyable. I would fully recommend Sony to anyone who was in the market for cutting edge electronics. References Yue, Michelle (2012, November). Retro Ad of the Week Retrieved from: http://mascola. com/insights/? p=5460